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The Semi 101 series explains the fundamentals of the semiconductor industry. 

In the last two decades, microchips have transformed the world we live in, fueling every device that requires computing power. In 2024, more than one trillion chips were manufactured globally. As we step into the age of artificial intelligence, the demand for chips will increase. ​

What is a microchip?  

A microchip (also known as a “chip” or “integrated circuit” [IC]) is a chunk of semiconducting material embedded with billions of transistors. A transistor acts as a miniature electrical switch that controls the flow of current and can be flipped on or off to amplify electrical signals. 
 

How big are chips? 

Billions of nanoscopic transistors are squeezed onto a chip, the size of a fingernail. Today, the most advanced chips in mass production are fabricated with structures just a few nanometers in size. 

Lam’s technology helps chipmakers scale to seemingly impossibly smaller features, packing in more transistors onto a chip to enable more computing power.
 

What are chips made of? 

Semiconductors, a group of materials with electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator are the base of ICs. Unlike most materials that let electricity flow freely (like copper) or resist current (like glass), semiconductors operate differently. At room temperature, semiconductor materials (like silicon and germanium) hardly conduct any electricity. To create electrical current, chipmakers “dope” or introduce foreign atoms, like phosphorus or boron, to semiconductors that change their electrical properties. 

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What are the different types of chips? 

Chips generally fall into one of four categories. 

• ​Logic chips do the heavy lifting. They’re the “brains” of our devices that process data to execute an operation. A CPU (central processing unit) is an example of a logic chip. CPUs allow us to run applications and manage a computer’s operating system.
   
• Memory chips store data. There are two types of memory chips: Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM), which is used for temporary data storage that disappears when a device is turned off, and NAND, which stores data permanently on a device. For example, DRAM is used to recall the last text or image you copied whereas NAND is used to store photos from your last beach vacation. (NAND, by the way, stands for “NOT AND,” which refers to the Boolean operator or logic gate that governs the internal circuit of a NAND cell.)
   
• ASICs (Application Specific Integrated Circuits) are designed for performing simple, repetitive, specific-use tasks, like scanning a barcode.
   
• SoCs (System-on-a-Chip) integrate many chips onto a single IC, making it possible for us to conveniently carry our personal electronic devices everywhere – without compromising on performance, power, and cost. SoCs are used in devices like smartphones and tablets to run applications, display images and videos, store data, and connect to wireless networks – tasks that were previously done on separate components.
   

How are chips made? 

Manufacturing a chip can take more than three months, with each IC undergoing nearly 700 steps. Here’s a quick overview of the fabrication process: 

• ​From sand to silicon: The semiconductor manufacturing process begins with a simple ingredient – sand. Sand has a high concentration of silicon​, the material of choice for chips. Multiple refinement and filtering processes are performed to deliver electronic-grade silicon, which accounts for only one alien atom for every billion silicon atoms. Pure silicon is melted and sliced into disks, or wafers, which are polished before they’re sent off to the fab.
  • What Is Silicon and How Is It Used for Chips?
  • What's the Difference Between Fabs, Fabless Companies, and Foundries?
     
• Deposition: Insulating or conductive materials are laid down on a wafer’s surface – at times, only a few atoms thick. Recently, Lam introduced Coronus DX​, a deposition tool that lays a protective film on the bevel of the wafer, which helps drive more precise and predictable results for chipmakers. 
  • Read about deposition essentials.
     
• Lithography: A blueprint or circuit design is transferred onto the wafer. Lam’s dry resist technology​ extends the resolution, productivity, and yield of extreme ultra violet (EUV) lithography. 
   
• Etch: Unwanted material is etched away to create desired features and patterns of a semiconductor device. Sense.i​, Lam’s latest etch platform, supports logic and memory device roadmaps well into the coming decade and beyond, by controlling the etch profile of taller 3D structures.
  • Read about etch essentials.
     
• Packaging: Chips are then cut from the wafer and placed onto a substrate, a protective container that encloses the IC and provides power and signal connectivity. In November 2022, Lam announced the acquisition of SEMSYSCO​, helping the company move into the advanced packaging substrate market – which is expected to grow by nearly 40% over the next four years.